Abstracts/Index of Prior Issues

Table of Contents

CT - 10(1) Volume 10, Issue No. 1 Fall 2007

CT - 10(1) Volume 10, Issue No. 1 Spring 2007

CT - 10(1) Volume 10, Issue No. 1 Fall 2006

CT - 10(1) Volume 10, Issue No. 1 Spring 2006

CT - 10(1) Volume 10, Issue No. 1 Fall 2005

CT - 10(1) Volume 10, Issue No. 1 Spring 2005

CT - 9(1) • Volume 9, Issue No. 2 Fall 2004

CT - 9(1) • Volume 9, Issue No. 1 Spring 2004

CT - 7(1) Volume 8, Issue No. 2 Fall 2003

CT - 7(1) Volume 8, Issue No. 1 Spring 2003

CT - 7(2) Volume 7, Issue No. 2 Fall 2002

CT - 7(1) Volume 7, Issue No. 1 Spring 2002

CT - 6(2) Volume 6, Issue No. 2 Fall 2001

CT - 6(1) Volume 6, Issue No. 1 Spring 2001

CT - 5(2) Volume 5, Issue No. 2 Fall 2000

CT - 5(1) Volume 5, Issue No. 1 Spring 2000

CT - 4(2) Volume 4, Issue No. 2 Fall 1999

CT - 4(1) Volume 4, Issue No. 1 Spring 1999

CT - 3(2) Volume 3, Issue No. 2 Fall 1998

CT- 3(1) Volume 3, Issue No. 1 Spring 1998

CT - 2(2) Volume 2, Issue No. 2 Fall 1997

CT - 2(1) Volume 2, Issue No. 1 Spring 1997

CT - 1(1) Volume 1, Issue No. 1 Fall 1996

CT - 3(2) Volume 3, Issue No. 2 Fall 1998

THEORETICAL ARTICLES

4 Cognitive Theory, Experiments, Applications, and Cognitive Impairment
Herman Buschke, M.D., Martin J. Sliwinski, Ph.D., and Dermot Luddy, M.A., L.Ph.

9 The Importance of Applied Research to Demonstrating the Utility of Basic Findings and Theories: Commentary on Buschke, Sliwinski, and Luddy
Douglas Herrmann, Ph.D., Douglas Raybeck, Ph.D., Michael Gruneberg, Ph.D., Robert Grant, Ph.D., and Carol Yoder, Ph.D.

RESEARCH ARTICLES

13 Utilising Human Cognitive Resources in Browsing Face Recall Systems: an Exercise in Human Computer Integration
Barbara Gorayska, Ph.D., Kevin Cox, Ph.D., Joseph Ho, M.Sc., and Tony Roberts, Ph.D.

24 How Necessary Steps in a Task get Omitted: Revising Old Ideas to Combat a Persistent Problem
James Reason, Ph.D.

33 Retraining Rehearsal After Traumatic Brain Injury
Rick Parenté, Ph.D.

PRODUCT REVIEW

39 Memory Works: A CD Memory Training Program for Older Adults
John M. Rybash, Ph.D.

Abstracts - Fall 1998

Cognitive Theory, Experiments, Applications, and Cognitive Impairment
Herman Buschke, M.D.
Martin J. Sliwinski, Ph.D.
Albert Einstein College of Medicine
Dermot Luddy, M.A., L.Ph.
Fordham University

To consider the proposition that cognitive technology may validate cognitive theory, we discuss the principle of encoding specificity and its (successful) application in the Double Memory Test as an illustration of the relationship of experiments and applications to theory. We conclude that practical applications of cognitive theories are necessary to determine the utility of cognitive theories, but will not (usually) assist in evaluating their validity.

The Importance of Applied Research to Demonstrating the Utility of Basic Findings and Theories: Commentary on Buschke, Sliwinski, and Luddy
Douglas Herrmann, Ph.D.
Indiana State University
Douglas Raybeck, Ph.D.
Hamilton College
Michael Gruneberg, Ph.D.
University of Wales
Robert Grant, Ph.D.
Carol Yoder, Ph.D.
Indiana State University

Applied research has been said to be crucial to demonstrating the utility of basic findings and theories. If applied research fails to demonstrate that basic findings and theories can be applied, such a failure would suggest that the basic findings and theories are not valid and/or that the application efforts are invalid. Presently, the basic research community pays little or no attention to applied research failures. We propose that the credibility that basic research attributes to well designed studies which do not support a theory should be extended to properly executed applications. Like basic research, applied research may fail to test basic findings and theories adequately due to weaknesses in the research. Nevertheless, there are criteria that permit evaluation of the adequacy of applied research. Our point is that basic researchers have failed to realize that the vast field of applied research provides an abundance of data that could help accelerate the development and refinement of basic research and theories. Buschke, Sliwinski, and Luddy (1998) argue that the failure to support a prediction derived from a basic theory cannot be used to reject the theory and accept the null hypothesis because the null hypothesis cannot be proved. However, sometimes null findings are credible. For example, a null finding obtained repeatedly under different conditions by different investigators contrary to theoretically-based predictions raise serious challenge to any theory. For basic research to refuse to consider null findings slows the advance of science and makes irresponsible use of public funds for research.

Utilising Human Cognitive Resources in Browsing Face Recall Systems: an Exercise in Human Computer Integration
Barbara Gorayska, Ph.D.
Kevin Cox, Ph.D.
Joseph Ho, M.Sc.
City University of Hong Kong
Tony Roberts, Ph.D.
Southampton University, UK

In this paper we discuss the results of a feasibility study for the design of an adaptive Face Recall System which aids people when they are called to recognise and recall human faces. The tool uses human search strategies based on facial similarity when they browse in a database of faces. The aim of this research is to minimise the effect of user-system interaction on human face memory and face perception with a view to establishing a set of guidelines for the design and development of identikit applications which make possible system differentiation of the users' idiosyncratic needs in memory retention and recall.

How Necessary Steps in a Task get Omitted: Reviving Old Ideas to Combat a Persistent Problem
James Reason, Ph.D.
University of Manchester

Omission errors constitute a serious risk in hazardous technologies, particularly during maintenance-related activities in nuclear power generation and aviation engineering organisations. The paper has two aims. First, to identify the omission-provoking features of task steps and, second, to examine the use of reminders as a technique for omission management. The paper begins by developing an action model that combines the Lewinian concept of task tension with the TOTE unit. Its purpose is to identify a variety of situations in which tension-operation discrepancies can lead to the omission of necessary steps. These assumptions about omission-provoking task properties were then tested by a questionnaire survey of relative error frequencies while using a simple photocopier. As predicted, the single most commonly reported omission was leaving the last page of the original under the lid. This task step possesses a large number of omission-provoking properties that appear to work in an additive fashion. Two other questionnaire studies are also reported. Both concerned the practical issue of omission management. The first investigated the use of everyday reminders. The second examined the relationship between the relative popularity of reminders and the degree to which they satisfy the criteria for a good reminder. A close correspondence was observed. The implications of these findings for omission management are discussed.

Retraining Rehearsal After Traumatic Brain Injury
Rick Parenté, Ph.D.
Towson State University
Stephanie Kolokowsky, M.A.
Medical College of Virginia
Amie Elliott, M.A.
Johns Hopkins Bayview Center

When we have asked persons with acquired brain injuries how they remember, the usual response is "repetition." Cognitive Psychologists use a different term, "rehearsal," to describe the process of repetition (Ericsson & Poulson, 1988; Rundus, 1977; Loisette, 1886). Rehearsal keeps information in working memory by recycling. It is the mechanism by which we maintain information in memory so that we can process its features or extract its most important components for later storage in long_term memory (Baddeley, 1995; Baddeley, Harris, Sunderland, Watts, & Wilson, 1967).

Memory Works: A CD Memory Training Program for Older Adults
John M. Rybash, Ph.D.
Hamilton College

It has been proposed that the most promising approach to the development of memory training programs for older adults is Compact Disc-interactive (CD-i) and its successor, CD-ROM technology. Due to the anticipated strengths of the CD-i approach, Baldi, Plude, and Schwartz (1996) constructed a memory training program for older adults called Memory Works. On the positive side, Memory Works is highly interactive, user friendly, and fun. It possesses a clear set of instructions and an easy to negotiate set of menus all of which are described by a likable host. And, it yields gains in memory performance above and beyond a similar training program engineered in the videotape format. The most negative feature of Memory Works is finding the appropriate hardware (i.e., a CD-i player) to run the program. Memory Works is an excellent vehicle to boost the memory performance of older adults. It will only have a bright future, however, if low cost CD-i players are made readily available to the general public.


CT- 3(1) Volume 3, Issue No. 1 Spring 1998

RESEARCH ARTICLES

4 Finding Graphs Useful: Linking Preference to Performance for One Cognitive Tool
C. Melody Carswell, Ph.D., Justin R. Bates, B.A., Nick R. Pregliasco, B.A., Andrea Lonon, M.A., and Jennifer Urban, B.A.

19 Modeling Mental Workload
Roger W. Schvaneveldt, Ph.D., Gary B. Reid, M.S., Rebecca L. Gomez, Ph.D., and Sean Rice, B.A.

32 Source Monitoring in Face-to-Face and Computer-Mediated Environments
Francis T. Durso, Ph.D., Carla A. Hackworth, M.A., Ami L. Barile, Ph.D., Michael R.P. Dougherty, M.S., and Daryl D. Ohrt, M.S.

39 Conceptural and Spatial Representations in Memory
Kwesi E. Bentum, M.S., M.Ed.

45 A Proposed Resolution of the Remediation-Compensation Controversy in Brain Injury Rehabilitation
Marilyn M. Bergman, Ph.D.

EDITORIALS

52 Cognitive Technology and Cognitive Rehabilitation: A Merger of Disciplines
Rick Parenté, Ph.D.

53 Where Research on Cognitive Applications and Cognitive Technology may be Published
The Editors

Abstracts - Spring 1998

Finding Graphs Useful: Linking Preference to Performance for One Cognitive Tool
C. Melody Carswell, Ph.D.
Justin R. Bates, B.A.
Nick R. Pregliasco, B.A.
Andrea Lonon, M.A.
Jennifer Urban, B.A.
University of Kentucky

Graphs are cognitive tools that, when well designed, support the rapid integration of quantitative data to allow classification and description of patterns and trends. Yet, there are potential users who claim that they do not find graphs useful and who ignore or avoid such displays. The present study evaluated the graph-reading performance of participants who scored in the upper or lower quartiles of a graph preference questionnaire. Many of the differences found between high and low preference groups (in cued recall, spontaneous interpretations and speeded trend classifications) were attributable to differences in strategies and goals rather than to differences in efficiency. High preference participants reported using a wider variety of encoding strategies to aid recall. They were also less likely to spontaneously devote resources to point reading, concentrating instead on extracting global and local trends when asked to interpret graphs. Finally, our high preference participants classified trends more quickly (if slightly less accurately), and their performance was more strongly influenced by global patterns. One interpretation of these data is that the perceived usefulness of graphs is a function of the match between the user's goals (selected task and performance criteria) and the display's function. Therefore, managing this match may be critical for increasing acceptance of graphs and other cognitive tools.

Modeling Mental Workload
Roger W. Schvaneveldt, Ph.D.
New Mexico State University
Gary B. Reid, M.S.
Armstrong Laboratories, Wright-Patterson AFB
Rebecca L. Gomez, Ph.D.
University of Arizona
Sean Rice, B.A.
New Mexico State University

The primary objective of this research project was to investigate models for monitoring and predicting subjective workload in the control of complex systems. Such models would enable systems to use workload levels to distribute tasks optimally in addition to identifying levels of workload which could lead to a serious breakdown in performance. In the aircraft-pilot system, for example, such capabilities could provide warnings to the pilot of high workload levels and could also assess ways of reducing the pilot's workload by offering to assume control of some ongoing tasks. In this initial project, we tried to determine how well a model can assess workload using information about task requirements and task performance.

Source Monitoring in Face-to-Face and Computer-Mediated Environments
Francis T. Durso, Ph.D.
Carla A. Hackworth, M.A.
Ami L. Barile, Ph.D.
Michael R.P. Dougherty, M.S.
Daryl D. Ohrt, M.S.
University of Oklahoma

We compared the performance of computer-mediated communication (CMC) to face-to-face (FF) groups who were attempting to solve a mystery. Half of the groups received all of the information. The other half received the same information, but distributed among the members (Stasser, 1988). After discussion, participants were given a questionnaire addressing facts of the case. Results indicated that CMC groups had more difficulty solving the problem than FF groups. Of primary interest was whether group members could make correct attributions of intellectual property, that is, could they remember who first introduced an idea into the discussion. CMC and FF group members were equally able to discriminate between self-generated and other-generated memories (i.e., reality monitoring). However, CMC groups were much more likely than FF groups to confuse the source of information provided by other group members.

Conceptual and Spatial Representations in Memory
Kwesi E. Bentum, M.S., M.Ed.
The Children's Village, Dobbs Ferry, New York

An experiment tested the effects of spatial representation on memory and examined the relevance of the three classes of theories on mental representation of spatial relations. Sophisticated computer users (experts) and novice computer users (novices) participated in the experiment. Participants were required to master the layout of 30 stimulus items and locate the position of each icon on the screen with the mouse. The icons which represented various objects were divided into the following categories: (a) conceptually related and clustered, (b) conceptually unrelated and clustered, (c) conceptually related and spread, (d) conceptually unrelated and spread. The results indicated that conceptual relations may facilitate the retrieval process from Short-Term Memory (STM), with broader implications for learning.

A Proposed Resolution of the Remediation-Compensation Controversy in Brain Injury Rehabilitation
Marilyn M. Bergman, Ph.D.
MASTERY Rehabilitation Systems®, Inc.

This paper explores the distinction between remediation and compensation in brain injury rehabilitation, through historical review of the uses of computers in brain injury rehabilitation. Discussion of the relative benefits and disadvantages of training repetition, of training on conventional software, and of automated assessment tools defines the underlying assumptions and goals of these applications and approaches. Efficacy of intervention with a specific computer cognitive orthotic system is also reported and discussed, with illustration of instances in which the classic distinctions between remediation and compensation are obscured. The author suggests that a shift in paradigm could resolve the fundamental tension between the tenets of remediation and compensation in brain injury rehabilitation.

Cognitive Technology and Cognitive Rehabilitation: A merger of disciplines
Rick Parenté, Ph.D.
Towson State University

In this issue, we welcome readers from the Society for Cognitive Rehabilitation (SCR). The SCR is devoted to the advancement of cognitive technology as a therapeutic medium. Many members of the Practical Memory Institute or the Society for Applied Research on Memory and Cognition may not be familiar with the history, purpose, or the efficacy of Cognitive Rehabilitation Therapy (CRT). Likewise, many members of the SCR may not comprehend the scope of cognitive technology or its potential value to their disciplines.

Where Research on Cognitive Applications and Cognitive Technology May Be Published
The Editors

Cognitive Technology is the first journal that attempts to bring together professionals of all backgrounds who are engaged in developing applications and/or technologies that enhance cognition. An application of cognitive psychology is one that has been shown to apply to a particular situation. A particular cognitive technology is an application that has been shown to be useful to two or more situations (Gorayska & Mey, 1996; Herrmann, 1996). The journal has the goal of developing a body of knowledge about how to improve cognition in a variety of situations. The journal provides researchers the opportunity to make the step from applicable research (findings that might be applied) to applied research (research that shows how applications may be achieved).


CT - 2(2) Volume 2, Issue No. 2 Fall 1997

RESEARCH ARTICLES

4 How to Doom Yourself to Repeat the Past: Some Reflections on the History of Cognitive Technology
Robert R. Hoffman, Ph.D.

16 Imagery Training via Videotape: Progress and Potential for Older Adults
Robin L. West, Ph.D., Monica S. Yassuda, Ph.D., and Duana C. Welch, Ph.D.

22 Cognitive Impact of Graphical User Interfaces
Kent L. Norman, Ph.D.

31 Improving Survey Design: The Linguistic Complexity of Survey Questions and the Quality of Responses
Leslie A. Miller, Ph.D., and Douglas Herrmann, Ph.D.

41 Improving Concentration and Hand/Eye Coordination by Playing Video Games:
A Short Report
Alexis Parenté

PRODUCT REVIEW

44 Improving Cognition through the Use of Nutrients, Drugs, and other Cognitive-Enhancing Substances
Stephanie A. Kolakowsky, M.A.

Abstracts - Fall 1997

How to Doom Yourself to Repeat the Past: Some Reflections on the History of Cognitive Technology
Robert R. Hoffman, Ph.D.
Adelphi University

This article first provides a thumbnail sketch of the history of cognitive technology, to support some reflections on some trends across that history using the sundial, the typewriter, and the computer as case studies. The article focuses on what seems to be an invidious trend - the trend to build new and complex cognitive systems without sufficient attention to human factors issues.

Imagery Training via Videotape: Progress and Potential for Older Adults
Robin L. West, Ph.D.
Monica S. Yassuda, Ph.D.
Duana C. Welch, Ph.D.
University of Florida

An examination of the aging literature suggests that older adults have memory deficits that are based, in part, on failure to utilize powerful memory strategies. Mental imagery is widely considered to be one of the most effective memory strategies. However, this technique is rarely used by older adults and may pose particular difficulties for them. Videotaped memory training programs can provide supportive conditions for older adults to learn new complex, imaginal strategies because video demonstrations show how to create distinctive, memorable mental images and because they permit self-paced learning and regular review.

Cognitive Impact of Graphical User Interfaces
Kent L. Norman, Ph.D.
University of Maryland

Computer systems are rapidly moving from single task, alphanumeric, command line operating systems to multi-task, graphical, menu-driven systems. This change invokes a whole new set of cognitive demands and preferences on the part of the user. This study investigated cognitive factors involved in the use of graphical user interfaces (GUIs) to help provide principles for standards and good design.
In the first phase of this study, focus groups were conducted at the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS). Results indicated substantial differences between the perceptions of users and programmers of GUIs. In the second phase, participants evaluated a set of computer screens in terms of overall liking, clarity of function, ease of use, and aesthetic appeal. Participants included undergraduate students at the University of Maryland and personnel at the NCHS who identified themselves as either users or programmers..
Results indicated that subjects were sensitive to differences in the cognitive demands of alternative screens. Furthermore, programmers tended to prefer and rate higher designs that conformed to GUI systems with which they were familiar and which optimized the interface from a programming standpoint (e.g., efficient use of screen real estate). Other groups tended to prefer designs that were similar to those that they had used in the past or that make their task easier.

Improving Survey Design: The Linguistic Complexity of Survey Questions and the Quality of Responses
Leslie A. Miller, Ph.D.
Rollins College
Douglas Herrmann, Ph.D.
Indiana State University

Many educational institutions, agencies, and private organizations rely on surveys as a fundamental source of data. However, the data gathered from surveys is only as good as the quality of questions and answers to survey questions. Two investigations assessed the relative contributions of the syntax and semantics of survey questions to the quality of answers to these questions. Investigation 1 observed the effects of syntactic and semantic complexity on the answering of questions on a national survey. The results revealed a significant main effect of semantic complexity and a significant interaction between syntactic and semantic complexity on answer quality. Although not significant, syntactically complex questions tended to be more difficult for respondents than syntactically simple questions. Investigation 2 manipulated the variables observed in Investigation 1 and found a significant effect of semantic complexity. The investigation also found a significant main effect of syntactic complexity, but there was
no interaction. Based on post-hoc analyses, it was concluded that semantic and syntactic complexity have an independent effect on answering. The results suggest that survey designers should use syntactically and semantically simple questions when possible in lieu of syntactically and semantically complex questions.

Improving Concentration and Hand/Eye Coordination by Playing Video Games: A Short Report
Alexis Parente
The Maryvale Preparatory School

Twenty participants were tested twice with several measures of attention/concentration and hand/eye coordination. Ten participants played a video game between the two tests and another 10 participants conversed with each other between the two tests. The results showed that the participants who played the video games improved their scores from the first to the second test more than the participants who conversed with each other on every measure of attention/concentration and hand/eye coordination. Playing video games seemed to have its biggest effect on measures of concentration and hand/eye coordination.

Improving Cognition Through the Use of Nutrients, Drugs, and Other Cognitive-Enhancing Substances
Stephanie A. Kolakowsky, M.A.
Towson University

In the past 30 years, literally hundreds of cognitive enhancing substances (CESs) have been investigated. However, despite the potential and public interest surrounding CESs, this large body of research has produced mixed results with no consensus as to whether these substances enhance cognition. This review summarizes CES findings of well-controlled clinical studies, and determines which CESs hold the greatest potential for treating various types of cognitive deficits.


CT - 2(1) Volume 2, Issue No. 1 Spring 1997

RESEARCH ARTICLES

6 Cognitive Technology: Reflections on a Long History and Promising Future
Raymond S. Nickerson, Ph.D.

21 The Perceived Value of Mind Maps (spider diagrams) as Learning and Memory Aids
Michael M. Gruneberg, Ph.D. and Stephen Mathieson

25 10-Minute Interventions for Remembering Peoples' Names, Directions to Places, and Household Objects' Locations: Computerized Memory Training for Older Adults
Von O. Leirer, Ph.D., Elizabeth Decker Tanke, Ph.D., Daniel G. Morrow, Ph.D., and Jack Kahn, M.A.

THEORETICAL ARTICLES

40 Cognitive Technology: What's in a name?
Jonathan Marsh, M.A. and Barbara Gorayska, Ph.D.

44 The Application of Cognitive Theory in Aging Research
Roger W. Morrell, Ph.D.

48 Cognitive Load Theory and Instructional Design
Sharon Tindall-Ford, Ph.D., Paul Chandler, Ph.D., and John Sweller, Ph.D.

60 A Technologist's Overview of the Development of Cognitive Technology
Peter Wright, Ed.D.
PRODUCT REVIEW

69 Mind Operated Devices
Stacie M. Metz, M.A. and Beth Hoffman, M.A.

BOOK REVIEW

75 Coping with Computers - Revisiting Concerns and Recognizing Opportunities
by M.K. 'Chat' Chatterji, M.S.
The Trouble with Computers by Thomas K. Landauer, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Abstracts - Spring 1997

Cognitive Technology: Reflections on a Long History and Promising Future
Raymond S. Nickerson, Ph.D.
Tufts University

Cognitive technology has a very long history. It predates cognitive science - just as technology predates science more generally - by many millennia. This essay begins with a discussion of the relationship between science and technology generally and the relationship between cognitive science and cognitive technology in particular. Some observations are then made about the history of technology and of cognitive technology. The relationship between science and technology today is described as one of mutual support and interdependence. The current status and the future of cognitive technology are discussed in relation to information (computer-communication) technology because of the far-ranging effects of the latter on all aspects of our lives and the expectation that these effects are likely to increase.
The point of departure for this essay is recognition that cognitive technology, in the form of artifacts and procedures intended to facilitate the performance of cognitive tasks, has a very long history. Because I believe it is useful to view cognitive technology from a historical perspective and to see it in relation not only to cognitive science but to technology and science more generally, I begin with some observations about the relationship between technology and science and then consider the relationship between cognitive technology and cognitive science in the light of those observations. I note some of the lessons to be learned from the history of technology in general and from that of cognitive technology in particular. I then focus on cognitive technology as it relates to information (computer_communication) technology, because of the far_ranging effects of the latter on all aspects of our lives and the expectation that these effects are likely to continue to increase.

The Perceived Value of Mind Maps (spider diagrams) as Learning and Memory Aids
Michael M. Gruneberg, Ph.D.
Stephen Mathieson
University of Wales Swansea

This paper reports on a survey of 201 undergraduate students attending a first year psychology class, who were asked to fill in a questionnaire on their use of mind maps (spider diagrams) for learning and memory purposes. Results indicate that 58.71% of students had previously used mind maps, and that 38.71% continued to use mind maps for examination preparation at a university. 76.61% of users found mind maps very useful or useful for this purpose. Almost all knowledge of mind maps was acquired at school, and over a wide range of school subjects. The results of this survey suggest, therefore, that mind mapping techniques are widely used by university students in the UK, and are seen by a substantial number of students to be of value in helping with the examination process.

10-Minute Interventions for Remembering Peoples' Names, Directions to Places, and Household Objects' Locations: Computerized Memory Training for Older Adults
Von O. Leirer, Ph.D.
Elizabeth Decker Tanke, Ph.D.
Daniel G. Morrow, Ph.D.
Jack Kahn, M.A.
Decision Systems

In three studies we investigate whether computer-assisted instruction, teaching older adults specialized, quick, easy-to-learn, and easy-to-use mnemonics can improve everyday remembering. Study One found that older adults liked learning a simple rote rehearsal system and it improved their recall of people's names by 80% after a two-week delay. Study Two found that a simple, structured note taking system reduced errors in recalling directions to places by 67.7% (younger-old) and 42.9% (older-old). Study Three, a preliminary investigation, found that a simple to use rule-based mnemonic for remembering the location of commonly misplaced household and personal objects improved a self-reported measure of recall from 82.6% to 100%. These and our earlier medication adherence study suggest that specialized, easy-to-learn, and easy-to-use mnemonic techniques can improve everyday remembering. These studies also indicate that inexpensive, self-paced computer assisted instruction can be used to teach these techniques, thereby insuring uniformity of instruction and accessibility by more people from all social economic strata.

Cognitive Technology: What's in a name?
Jonathon Marsh, M.A.
The University of Hong Kong
Barbara Gorayska, Ph.D.
City University of Hong Kong

Catchy title, "Cognitive Technology"! It almost immediately invokes all kinds of futuristic images. Thinking machines, (smart) prosthetic devices, learning amplifiers, and intelligent machine interfaces all possibly spring to mind. However, if you ask the few people around the world who have been using the term, what it actually refers to, you are likely to get a common response. "Good question! I'm not sure." Then they begin a lengthy elaboration of their own interpretation which often becomes quite fuzzy and confusing. Comments are usually made to the effect that it is a form of human computer interface research, or it is another name for cognitive engineering, or it is similar to engineering psychology, or a subset of ergonomics. Having often been asked this question ourselves, we feel the need to establish a more coherent definition of what the term means as distinct from other related areas of investigation.

The Application of Cognitive Theory in Aging Research
Roger W. Morrell, Ph.D.
University of Michigan

In the present paper, it is demonstrated how findings from basic laboratory research on aging and the reduced processing hypothesis have been used to guide particular studies in applied cognitive aging research. The discussion focuses primarily on how instructions for operating electronic and other kinds of devices may be designed to reduce cognitive load and thus, make them more easily understood by older adults. A brief overview of other studies that have been conducted in this area is also presented to illustrate the diversity of this relatively new field. Overall, this paper suggests that this type of research should be a priority in order to improve the quality of life for older adults now and in the future.

Cognitive Load Theory and Instructional Design
Sharon Tindall-Ford, Ph.D.
Paul Chandler, Ph.D.
John Sweller, Ph.D.
University of New South Wales

The human cognitive processing system includes an immense long term memory and a very limited working memory. Schemas, with varying degrees of automation, are held permanently in long term memory and when brought down into working memory, are the main instruments of skilled intellectual performance. Many instructional techniques often ignore this cognitive architecture and impose an excessive load on working memory which hinders the learning process. Cognitive load theory has incorporated known aspects of human cognitive architecture with its own notions of information complexity to develop a range of alternative instructional techniques. This paper reviews cognitive load theory and provides examples of the instructional techniques generated by the theory.

A Technologist's Overview of the Development of Cognitive Technology
Peter H. Wright, Ed.D.
Indiana State University

As broadly defined, cognitive technology is a field which will grow rapidly based on a number of reinforcing technological, societal, and behavioral trends. It is critical that those on the front lines of research and innovations in cognitive technology confront major technological issues. These include trends in the development of technological systems and the multiple overlapping impacts of technological innovations on such areas as society, politics, economics, and individual perceptions of reality.

Mind Operated Devices
Stacie M. Metz, M.A.
Beth Hoffman, M.A.
Towson State University

Mind operated devices (MOD) are designed to interface the electrical activity of the brain with a computer in order to control some external device. This technology monitors intricate bioelectrical signals from the brain (EEG), muscle (EMG) or galvanic skin (GSR) activity, and then transforms these signals into electrical responses that can be used to activate equipment or to control some aspect of the environment. For example, the signals can be used to control a video game, the lighting in the room, or a computer cursor. Unfortunately, there is limited published research in the area of MOD systems development. The purpose of this article is to survey this literature, to present the results of original research in the use of MOD systems, and to propose a research agenda for the future.

Coping with Computers - Revisiting Concerns and Recognizing Opportunities
M.K. 'Chat' Chatterji, M.S.
Indiana State University
The Trouble with Computers by Thomas K. Landauer
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press

We would probably all have to agree that the modern world has subscribed to the notion that "computerization" produces speed, efficiency, productivity and even profit in our daily lives, both at work and at home. And if we agree with that world view, shouldn't we be full of praise for the computers we have come to depend upon? Thomas K. Landauer's book The Trouble with Computers is an insightful observation into why this is not always the case. His assertion, in fact, is quite the opposite.


CT - 1(1) Volume 1, Issue No. 1 Fall 1996

EDITORIAL

4 Cognitive Technology's Contributions to Cognitive Psychology: The Optimization of Discovery and Application
Douglas Herrmann, Ph.D.

THEORETICAL ARTICLE

9 Collaborative Research into Cognitive Technology: The Role of Shared Commitment, Problem Coherence and Domain Knowledge
Wally Smith, Ph.D., Mark Randell, Ph.D., Steve Lewandowsky, Ph.D., Kim Kirsner, Ph.D. and John Dunn, Ph.D.

RESEARCH ARTICLES

19 Improving Reading Rate and Reading Comprehension with Iconic Memory Training
Mehrunissa S. Hamid, M.A., Ricky Garner, M.A., and Rick Parenté, Ph.D.

25 New Technologies for Memory Training with Older Adults
Renee A. Baldi, Ph.D., Dana J. Plude, Ph.D., and Lisa K. Schwartz, M.A.

PRODUCT REVIEW

36 Portable Electronic Scheduling/Reminding Devices
Douglas Herrmann, Ph.D., Carol Y. Yoder, Ph.D., Justine Wells, and Douglas Raybeck, Ph.D.

BOOK REVIEW

45 Will We Ever Agree?
by Leslie A. Miller, Ph.D.
A review of Victims of Memory: Incest Accusations and Shattered Lives by M. Pendergrast (1995). Vermont: Upper Access, Inc.

Abstracts - Fall 1996

Cognitive Technology's Contribution to Cognitive Psychology: The Optimization of Discovery and Application
Douglas Herrmann, Ph.D.
Indiana State University

The Need for a Forum for Applications of Cognitive Psychology.
In the past three decades, cognitive psychology has grown rapidly as fast or faster than other areas of psychology. Basic research programs in cognitive psychology have been developed at almost all major colleges and universities. Over this period, a sufficient body of basic cognitive research has accumulated and many applied researchers have come to apply basic cognitive theories to everyday problems (Barber, 1998; Berger, Pezdek, & Banks, 1987; Gruneberg, Morris, & Sykes, 1978, 1988; Herrmann, McEvoy, Hertzog, Hertel, & Johnson, 1996; Hoffman & Deffenbacher, 1992).

Collaborative Research into Cognitive Technology: The Role of Shared Commitment, Problem Coherence and Domain Knowledge
Wally Smith, Ph.D.
Mark Randell, Ph.D.
Steve Lewandowsky, Ph.D.
Kim Kirsner, Ph.D.
John Dunn, Ph.D.
University of Western Australia

Collaboration between academics, industry, and domain specialists is often touted as the key to successful advances in the understanding and application of cognitive technology. A basic paradigm for research in this area can be identified as the development of theories and methods which address the tripartite relationship between cognitive artifacts, user cognition and task domains. We extend this paradign to develop a framework, described as the collaboration pyramid, for how academia, industry, and domain organizations might and should collaborate in pursuit of cognitive technology. Principles of the framework are illustrated in a brief case-study of an academic-industrial-military collaboration concerning the design of geographical information systems to support naval command and control.

Improving Reading Rate and Reading Comprehension with Iconic Memory Training
Mehrunissa S. Hamid, M.A.
Ricky Garner, M.A.
Rick Parenté, Ph.D.
Towson State University

Two experiments investigated the effect of different types of iconic training on various measures of reading skill. The first experiment indicated that training with a traditional iconic memory partial report procedure similar to the one used by Sperling (1960) improved reading rate but not reading comprehension. A modified iconic training procedure used improved reading comprehension but not reading rate. The second experiment manipulated the meaningfulness of the iconic stimuli during training. The results indicated that meaningfulness was directly related to recall during iconic training. During the transfer task, subjects who were given high meaningful stumuli during training did not perform significantly better on tests of reading comprehension relative to the low meaningful condition. However, those subjects who received high or low meaningful iconic training did perform significantly better than the control condition on the reading comprehension and reading rate measures.

New Technologies for Memory Training with Older Adults
Renee A. Baldi, Ph.D.
Dana J. Plude, Ph.D.
Lisa K. Schwartz, M.A.
University of Maryland

This paper examines the use of new technologies in memory training with older adults. Older adults are interested in memory training programs, but traditional programs are labor-intensive and costly and they are not always successful in producing long-lasting changes in effective strategy use. Thus there is pressing need to identify alternative modes of memory training for the elderly. We evaluate the effectiveness and feasibility of memory training programs based on three types of technology: videotape, computer-assisted instruction, and interactive multimedia systems. Videotaped programs have the advantage of accessibility and affordability but at the cost of limited interactivity. Computer-aided instruction overcomes the limited interactivity of videotapes but at the cost of accessibility and attractiveness to many older adults. Interactive multimedia programs, such as television-based Compact Disc-interactive (CD-i) memory training, combine the positive features of videotaped and computer-based programs and overcome many of the disadvantages of those technologies. Despite their differences, each of these technologies offers many advantages over conventional memory improvement programs based on in vivo training with an instructor or text-based self-help books. Memory training programs using new technologies hold excellent promise for aiding older adults in acquiring, maintaining, and reinforcing mnemonic techniques, and in producing longer term benefits with conventional modes of memory training.

Portable Electronic Scheduling/Reminding Devices
Douglas Herrmann, Ph.D.
Carol Y. Yoder, Ph.D.
Justine Wells
Indiana State University
Douglas Raybeck, Ph.D.
Hamilton College

A schedule is the mental or physical record of an intention to perform an act at a certain time. Failure to schedule effectively leads to oversights, such as missed appointments, unexcused chores, or redundancies (i.e., planning two of more obligations for the same time). In the past decade, portable scheduler/reminder devices have been developed that remind people of things they have to do at a certain time by pressing a signal such as an audible beep, as well as a directive that communicates what is to be done. The probability of remembering is better with a signal and a directive which prompt memory than if one must rely solely on memory. The purpose of this article is to analyze the psychological effects of scheduler/reminders and to discuss different features of scheduler/reminder design.

Will We Ever Agree?
Leslie A. Miller, Ph.D.
Rollins College
A review of: M. Pendergrast (1995)
Victims of Memory: Incest Accusations and Shattered Lives
Vermont: Upper Access, Inc.

I don't remember much about my childhood. Sometimes I am energetic and excited about my life - other times I feel overwhelmed and depressed. My husband and I sometimes have relationship problems. I once had an eating disorder.
Perhaps I was sexually abused as a child. According to several books, I have many of the symptoms (e.g., see Bass & Davis, 1994; Blume, 1990; Frederickson, 1992; Herman, 1992; Lew, 1988; Maltz, 1991; Oksana, 1994; Smith & Pazder, 1980; Terr, 1994). Such a thing could never have happened to me! I don't have any such memories.
But, according to some books, denial is also a symptom of childhood sexual abuse (e.g., see Bass & Davis, 1994). I must be a survivor! I will eventually remember - if I want to get well that is.